Description:Malignant tumors have a poor prognosis because they are more likely to spread to other parts of the body and cause death. Malignant tumors can metastasize easily, meaning that they can break away from the original tumor and travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors do not show encapsulation, meaning that they do not have a clear border between the tumor and the surrounding tissue. This makes it easier for the tumor to spread. Benign tumors, on the other hand, do not have a poor prognosis, do not metastasize easily, and do show encapsulation. This means that they are less likely to spread to other parts of the body and cause death.

Description:Benign tumors are generally well circumscribed, meaning they have a clear and defined boundary that separates them from the surrounding tissue. This characteristic helps distinguish them from malignant (cancerous) tumors, which are more likely to be invasive and spread into neighboring tissues. Options a, b, and d are features commonly associated with malignant tumors rather than benign ones: a. Malignant tumors are invasive and can invade surrounding tissues and organs, causing destruction of nearby structures. b. Anaplasia is a feature of malignant tumors, referring to the loss of normal cellular differentiation and organization. In benign tumors, cells tend to retain their normal structure and function. d. Encapsulation is more characteristic of benign tumors. Benign tumors are usually encapsulated, meaning they are surrounded by a fibrous capsule that further separates them from the surrounding tissue. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, are less likely to have a clear capsule and may infiltrate into nearby tissues.

Description:Lymphatic spread is the most common route of initial metastasis for carcinomas. This is because carcinomas are tumors that start in epithelial cells, which are the cells that line the inside and outside of the body. The lymphatic system is a network of vessels that carries lymph, a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, throughout the body. When cancer cells break away from the primary tumor, they can enter the lymphatic system and travel to other parts of the body. Hematogenous spread is another route of metastasis for carcinomas, but it is less common than lymphatic spread. Hematogenous spread occurs when cancer cells enter the bloodstream and travel to other parts of the body. Direct invasion is less common than lymphatic or hematogenous spread. Direct invasion occurs when cancer cells break away from the primary tumor and spread directly to nearby tissues.

Description:Taking out a small piece of tissue from a living organism for diagnostic purposes is known as a biopsy. Biopsies are commonly performed when there are suspicious or abnormal tissues to determine whether they are benign or malignant, to identify specific diseases or conditions, or to assess the extent of the disease. Options b, c, and d are not correct in this context: b. Dissection typically refers to the process of cutting apart or separating tissues or organs for anatomical study or research, usually after death. c. Reconstruction involves rebuilding or reassembling tissues or organs, often in the context of surgical procedures or after traumatic injuries. d. Extraction usually refers to the act of removing something from a body, such as a tooth extraction, but it does not specifically pertain to obtaining tissue for diagnostic purposes.

Description:Reed Sternberg cells are large, abnormally lymphocytes that may contain more than one nucleus and are essential to diagnosis of Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

Description:All of the above tumors can cause elevated carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels. CEA is a protein that is normally found in the cells of the fetus, but it is not normally found in adults. However, CEA levels can be elevated in adults who have certain types of cancer. The following are some of the cancers that can cause elevated CEA levels: Breast cancer Gastric cancer Lung cancer Colorectal cancer Pancreatic cancer Thyroid cancer Medullary thyroid cancer CEA levels can also be elevated in people who have non-cancerous conditions, such as pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis, and cirrhosis. However, elevated CEA levels are more likely to be due to cancer in people who have a history of cancer or who are at high risk for cancer. If you have elevated CEA levels, your doctor will likely order further tests to determine the cause. These tests may include a CT scan, an MRI, or a biopsy.

Description:AFP stands for Alpha-Fetoprotein, and it is the most useful circulating marker for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common type of liver cancer, and AFP is a specific tumor marker that can be measured in the blood. Elevated levels of AFP in the blood are often associated with HCC. Therefore, measuring AFP levels can be helpful in diagnosing and monitoring the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma. It is important to note that while AFP is a valuable marker, it is not solely used for the diagnosis of HCC, and other diagnostic tests such as imaging studies (ultrasound, CT scan, MRI) and liver biopsy may also be required for a definitive diagnosis. Options a, b, and c are not the most useful circulating markers for hepatocellular carcinoma: a. CA 50 (Cancer Antigen 50) is not a specific marker for HCC and is not commonly used in its diagnosis or monitoring. b. The level of vitamin B12 is not associated with hepatocellular carcinoma and is not used as a marker for this type of cancer. c. CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen) is not specific to hepatocellular carcinoma and is more commonly associated with certain types of colorectal and gastrointestinal cancers. It is not considered a primary marker for HCC.

Description:Neutropenia refers to a low absolute neutrophil count (ANC), which is a type of white blood cell. It can make individuals more susceptible to infections. The options (a, b, and c) all relate to possible neutropenia, but option d does not. a. Fever 2 consecutive readings >38.0℃ for 2 hours can be a sign of possible neutropenia, as a low ANC can lead to increased vulnerability to infections, which may manifest as fever. b. ANC count = 500 refers to an ANC of 500 cells per microliter of blood. An ANC of less than 1500 is generally considered low, and an ANC of less than 500 is classified as severe neutropenia. c. ANC count < 500 indicates a low absolute neutrophil count, which can be an indication of neutropenia. d. A single reading of 100.4℉ (38.0℃) is a temperature measurement and is not directly related to the definition of neutropenia. However, it is associated with option a, as a fever above this temperature for an extended period can raise concerns about possible neutropenia due to the increased risk of infections. In summary, all the options (a, b, and c) are related to possible neutropenia, but option d is not specifically related to neutropenia itself.

Description:Serum CEA level is not clinically useful for early diagnosis of colorectal cancer. CEA levels can be elevated in people who have colorectal cancer, but they can also be elevated in people who have other conditions, such as pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis, and cirrhosis. Therefore, CEA levels cannot be used to diagnose colorectal cancer in people who do not have any other symptoms. However, CEA levels can be used to monitor the progression of colorectal cancer and to detect recurrence after treatment. CEA levels can also be used to guide treatment response. If CEA levels decrease after treatment, it is a sign that the treatment is working. If CEA levels increase after treatment, it is a sign that the cancer may be coming back.

Description:All of the options listed (a. Alpha-fetoprotein, b. Thyroglobulin, c. β2-microglobulin) are examples of tumor markers. Tumor markers are substances that can be measured in the blood, urine, or tissues and are associated with certain types of cancers. They can be useful in diagnosing and monitoring cancer, as well as assessing treatment responses. Specifically: a. Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a tumor marker commonly used in the diagnosis and monitoring of hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) and certain germ cell tumors. b. Thyroglobulin is a tumor marker used primarily in the management of thyroid cancer. It is helpful in monitoring the recurrence or progression of thyroid cancer in patients who have undergone thyroidectomy. c. β2-microglobulin is a tumor marker that can be elevated in certain types of blood cancers, particularly multiple myeloma and some lymphomas. It's important to note that while tumor markers can be valuable in cancer diagnosis and monitoring, they are not definitive for diagnosing cancer on their own. Additional tests, such as imaging studies and biopsies, are often required for a conclusive diagnosis. Additionally, not all types of cancer have specific tumor markers associated with them. Therefore, the use of tumor markers varies depending on the type of cancer and the clinical context.

Description:All of the above parameters can show abnormal values in the lab test in a person recently diagnosed with multiple myeloma. Immunoglobulins are proteins that are produced by the immune system. In multiple myeloma, the bone marrow produces too many plasma cells, which are the cells that produce immunoglobulins. This can lead to an increase in the levels of certain immunoglobulins in the blood. Electrolytes are minerals that are essential for the body to function properly. In multiple myeloma, the kidneys can be affected, which can lead to imbalances in the levels of electrolytes in the blood. White blood cells (WBCs) are the cells that fight infection. In multiple myeloma, the number of WBCs can be low, which makes people with the condition more susceptible to infection. In addition to these parameters, other lab tests that can be abnormal in people with multiple myeloma include: Blood calcium levels Blood creatinine levels Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels Complete blood count (CBC) Serum protein electrophoresis (SPEP) Urine protein electrophoresis (UPEP) Bone marrow biopsy If you have any of the symptoms of multiple myeloma, such as bone pain, fatigue, or weight loss, it is important to see a doctor. Multiple myeloma is a serious disease, but it can be treated effectively. Early diagnosis and treatment are important for improving the chances of a good outcome.

Description:• Primary treatment: When radiation is the main treatment for the cancer • Adjuvant treatment: Sugary followed by chemo-or-radiotherapy to help decreased the risk of the cancer recurring. • Neo-adjuvant treatment: Treatment given as a first step to shrink a tumor before the main treatment • Palliative treatment: Designed to relieve symptoms, and improve the quality of life.

Description:Palliative care is an interdisciplinary approach focuses an providing relief from the symptoms, pain, physical stress, and mental stress at any stage of illness.

Description:Bone is the least radiosensitive tissue in the body. This is because bone cells are very slow-growing and have a high repair capacity. Therefore, they are less likely to be damaged by radiation. The most radiosensitive tissues in the body are those that are actively dividing, such as blood cells, skin cells, and the lining of the digestive tract. These tissues are more likely to be damaged by radiation because they are more susceptible to DNA damage.

Description:a. Thymus gland: The thymus is a lymphoid organ involved in the development of T-cells, a type of immune cell. It is sensitive to radiation, and radiation therapy in the chest or upper body area can affect the thymus. b. Gonads: The gonads are the reproductive organs (ovaries in females and testes in males). They are highly sensitive to radiation, and radiation therapy directed towards the pelvic or abdominal region can impact fertility and hormone production. c. Nerve cells: Nerve cells have limited capacity to regenerate and are generally considered to be radioresistant. While radiation therapy can cause some damage to nerve tissues, they are less affected compared to rapidly dividing cells like cancer cells. d. Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. They can be affected by radiation therapy, and a decrease in lymphocyte count may occur as a side effect. However, they can also recover and regenerate after the treatment is completed. Overall, nerve cells are the least affected by radiation therapy among the options given. However, it's important to note that radiation therapy can have varying effects on different tissues and organs depending on the dose, area of treatment, and individual variability. The goal of radiation therapy is to target and destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissues as much as possible.

Description:Strontium-89, samarium-153, and radium-223 are all radioisotopes that are used for cancer treatment. Strontium-89 is used to treat bone pain caused by metastatic cancer. It is a bone-seeking radioisotope, which means that it accumulates in the bones. When strontium-89 decays, it emits beta particles, which can kill cancer cells. Samarium-153 is used to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones. It is also a bone-seeking radioisotope, and it emits beta particles. Radium-223 is used to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones. It is a beta and alpha emitter, which means that it emits both beta particles and alpha particles. Alpha particles are more damaging to cancer cells than beta particles, so radium-223 is a more effective treatment than strontium-89 or samarium-153. Other radioisotopes that are used for cancer treatment include: Iodine-131 Lutetium-177 Yttrium-90 Palladium-103 Radioisotope therapy is a type of radiation therapy that uses radioactive isotopes to kill cancer cells. It is a targeted therapy, which means that it delivers radiation directly to the cancer cells, while minimizing damage to the surrounding healthy tissue.

Description:Brachytherapy is the insertion of radioactive implants directly into or near the targeted tissue. It is a type of radiation therapy used to treat various cancers. The radioactive sources can be placed inside or very close to the tumor, allowing for a high dose of radiation to be delivered directly to the cancer cells while minimizing the exposure of surrounding healthy tissues. Let's briefly review the other options: a. Teletherapy: Teletherapy, also known as external beam radiation therapy, is a type of radiation therapy where the radiation is delivered from outside the body using a machine. The radiation beams are precisely aimed at the tumor from various angles. c. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy involves the use of drugs to treat cancer by targeting and killing rapidly dividing cells. Unlike radiation therapy, chemotherapy is a systemic treatment that circulates throughout the body to target cancer cells both at the primary tumor site and any potential metastatic sites. d. Microwave therapy: Microwave therapy is a treatment approach that uses microwave energy to heat and destroy cancer cells. It is not a standard or widely used treatment modality compared to the other options mentioned.

Description:Sore throat is the most common side effect associated with radiation therapy to the neck. This is because the radiation can damage the cells in the lining of the throat, which can lead to inflammation and pain. Other common side effects of radiation therapy to the neck include: Dry mouth Difficulty swallowing Taste changes Skin changes Fatigue Nausea and vomiting Hair loss The severity of the side effects depends on the dose of radiation and the area of the neck that is being treated. Most of the side effects will go away after treatment is finished, but some may be permanent. If you are having any side effects from radiation therapy, it is important to talk to your doctor. They can help you manage the side effects and make sure that they do not interfere with your treatment.

Description:An external source of ionizing radiation pointed at a particular part of the body is known as teletherapy. Also referred to as external beam radiation therapy, teletherapy involves using a radiation machine to deliver high-energy rays (such as X-rays or gamma rays) from outside the body to target and treat a specific area affected by cancer. Let's briefly review the other options: b. Brachytherapy: Brachytherapy involves the insertion of radioactive implants directly into or near the tumor or body cavity. It is an internal radiation therapy technique, not an external source like teletherapy. c. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy involves the use of drugs to treat cancer by targeting rapidly dividing cells throughout the body. It is a systemic treatment, different from the localized approach of teletherapy. d. Microwave therapy: Microwave therapy is a treatment approach that uses microwave energy to heat and destroy cancer cells. Similar to brachytherapy, it is not an external radiation source like teletherapy. In summary, teletherapy is the correct term for the external delivery of ionizing radiation to a specific part of the body for cancer treatment.

Description:Nursing responsibilities for both external and internal radiation therapy include: a. Assisting in documenting the results of therapy: Nurses play a crucial role in documenting and recording the patient's response to radiation therapy. This involves tracking any changes in symptoms, side effects, or improvements observed during the treatment course. b. Carefully assessing and managing any complications, in collaboration with the radiation oncologist: Nurses closely monitor patients undergoing radiation therapy to identify and manage any potential complications or side effects. They work in collaboration with the radiation oncologist and other healthcare team members to provide timely interventions and supportive care. c. Providing emotional support: Radiation therapy can be a stressful and challenging experience for patients. Nurses are vital in providing emotional support, addressing patients' concerns, and helping them cope with the emotional aspects of their treatment journey. Nurses play a crucial role in the care and management of patients receiving radiation therapy. They ensure the well-being of patients throughout their treatment process, assist in documenting treatment outcomes, manage side effects, and provide the necessary emotional support to help patients navigate their cancer treatment. Therefore, all the options (a, b, and c) are correct, and the answer is "d. All of the above."

Description:Pain is one of the most common and distressing symptoms experienced by terminally ill patients. It is important to provide effective pain control to help patients maintain their quality of life and dignity. Other priority nursing interventions while caring for a terminally ill client include: Provide psychological support: Terminally ill patients may experience a range of emotions, including fear, anxiety, sadness, and anger. It is important to provide psychological support to help patients cope with these emotions and to make the most of their remaining time. Maintain nutritional status: Terminally ill patients may have difficulty eating and drinking. It is important to maintain their nutritional status to help them maintain their energy levels and to prevent weight loss. Maintain hydration: Terminally ill patients may also have difficulty staying hydrated. It is important to maintain their hydration levels to prevent dehydration and to help them feel more comfortable. Provide comfort measures: Terminally ill patients may experience a number of other symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, constipation, and shortness of breath. It is important to provide comfort measures to help relieve these symptoms and to make the patient as comfortable as possible. The goal of nursing care for terminally ill patients is to provide comfort and support to help them live their remaining days as fully as possible. By providing effective pain control, psychological support, and other comfort measures, nurses can help patients to maintain their quality of life and dignity until the end of their lives.

Description:Lymphedema is a condition that involves swelling in the arm (or other body parts) due to an accumulation of lymph fluid. It can occur as a complication following a radical mastectomy with lymph node removal, particularly when there is disruption of the lymphatic drainage in the affected area. To prevent or manage lymphedema, it is essential to promote lymphatic fluid flow and reduce fluid accumulation. Option c, raising the arm above the heart on pillows, is an effective measure to help prevent lymphedema. Elevating the arm helps to facilitate lymphatic drainage and reduce the risk of fluid build-up in the affected limb. Let's briefly review the other options: a. Warm moist heat application: Warm moist heat can be beneficial for certain conditions, but it is not a specific measure to prevent lymphedema. b. Restricting all movements of the arm: While some restrictions on strenuous activities may be advised in the early post-operative period to allow for healing, complete restriction of arm movements is generally not recommended. Gentle and controlled movements are encouraged to promote lymphatic circulation and prevent stiffness. d. Placing the arm close to the body in a sling: Keeping the arm immobilized in a sling is not recommended as a preventive measure for lymphedema. Immobilization can lead to decreased lymphatic flow and increase the risk of complications such as stiffness and contractures. In summary, raising the arm above the heart on pillows is the most appropriate measure among the options listed to help prevent lymphedema following a radical mastectomy with lymph node removal. However, it's essential for patients to follow the specific guidelines provided by their healthcare team to ensure a safe and effective recovery after surgery.

Description:These are all important post-operative teaching points to decrease lymphedema in a mastectomy client. Avoid wearing tight elastic or jewelry on the affected arm. This can restrict the flow of lymph fluid, which can lead to lymphedema. Sleep on your back or non-surgical side. This will help to keep the affected arm elevated and reduce the risk of lymphedema. Avoid lifting heavy objects during the first 4 to 6 weeks after surgery. This can put too much pressure on the lymph nodes and increase the risk of lymphedema. Other post-operative teaching points to help decrease lymphedema in a mastectomy client include: Massage the affected arm gently. This can help to keep the lymph fluid flowing and prevent it from pooling. Elevate the affected arm when you are sitting or lying down. This will also help to keep the lymph fluid flowing. Avoid activities that can put pressure on the affected arm, such as wearing a backpack or carrying a heavy purse. Drink plenty of fluids. This will help to keep the lymph fluid flowing. If you have any questions or concerns about lymphedema, be sure to talk to your doctor. They can help you develop a plan to manage your lymphedema and prevent it from getting worse.

Description:Elevation of the affected arm above the level of the heart promotes lymphatic drainage and venous return thus, preventing chances of lymphedema.

Description:Cryosurgery, also known as cryotherapy, involves the use of extreme cold to destroy abnormal cells, such as tumor cells. It often involves the use of liquid nitrogen as the cryogenic agent, although other substances like carbon dioxide and argon can also be used for specific applications. Let's break down each option: a. Use of extreme cold to destroy abnormal cells, such as tumor cells: This is the fundamental principle of cryosurgery. The extreme cold temperature is applied to the target tissue to freeze and destroy the abnormal cells, including cancerous cells. b. Often involves the use of liquid nitrogen, although carbon dioxide and argon may also be used: Liquid nitrogen is a common cryogenic agent used in cryosurgery due to its ability to achieve very low temperatures. However, carbon dioxide and argon can also be used in specific cases depending on the requirements and the type of tissue being treated. c. It is also called cryotherapy: Yes, cryosurgery is also commonly referred to as cryotherapy. Both terms are used interchangeably to describe the medical procedure that uses extreme cold for therapeutic purposes. In conclusion, all the options (a, b, and c) are correct. Cryosurgery is the use of extreme cold to destroy abnormal cells, and it often involves the use of liquid nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or argon. It is also known as cryotherapy.